Introduction: Sufism, known in Islamic terminology as Taṣawwuf, represents the spiritual and ethical dimension of Islam. It is fundamentally concerned with the purification of the heart (tazkiyat al-nafs), moral refinement, and the cultivation of God-consciousness. Far from being an alien accretion or an esoteric deviation, Sufism emerged organically from within the Islamic tradition during the earliest periods of Muslim history. Its roots can be traced to the era of the Tābiʿīn, with towering figures such as Ḥasan al-Baṣrī, followed by Rābiʿa al-Baṣrī, Junayd al-Baghdādī, Maʿrūf al-Karkhī, Sirrī Saqṭī, and many others who shaped its intellectual, spiritual, and ethical foundations. Sufism must not be confused with mysticism in the conventional Western sense. Rather, it represents a uniquely Islamic form of spirituality, firmly grounded in the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the lived practice of the Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ. In Islamic scholarship, Sufism is best understood as the practical realization of Iḥsān, the highest dimension of religion.
Sufism As Iḥsān: Qur’anic, Prophetic Foundations : The essence of Sufism is clearly articulated in the famous Ḥadīth of Jibrīl, wherein the Angel Jibrīl questioned the Prophet ﷺ about Islām (outward practice), Īmān (belief), and Iḥsān (spiritual excellence). The Prophet defined Iḥsān as: “To worship Allah as though you see Him, and if you cannot see Him, then to know that He sees you.”
This continuous awareness of Divine presence—of Allah’s omniscience, omnipresence, and sovereignty—is the core of Taṣawwuf. It is a mode of being in which the believer perceives the signs of Allah in the cosmos, in human life, and within the self. The Qur’an repeatedly emphasizes that the entire universe glorifies Allah, and Sufism seeks to align the human soul with this cosmic act of remembrance. Thus, Sufism does not represent a departure from Islamic worship but rather its inner dimension, transforming ritual observance into conscious devotion.
Sufism and Islam|An Inseparable Relationship: The claim that Sufism is distinct from or opposed to Islam is fundamentally flawed. Sufism is inseparable from Islam, just as spirituality is inseparable from religious life. If materialism and atheism represent certain culminations of Western modernity, then spirituality and Sufism represent the culmination of Islamic civilization. A committed Muslim is naturally inclined toward spirituality rather than hedonism or utilitarianism.
Sufism, therefore, is not an alternative theology but the ethical and spiritual refinement of Islamic belief and practice. Islam without spirituality becomes formalism; spirituality without Islam becomes distortion. Authentic Taṣawwuf preserves this balance.
Sufism in Kashmir|Historical Presence, Living Legacy: In Kashmir, Sufism has existed since the earliest introduction of Islam and continues to shape religious and cultural life. Prominent Sufi silsilas such as the Qādiriyya, Naqshbandiyya, Kubrāviyya, Chishtiyya, and the indigenous Rishi Silsila have profoundly influenced Kashmiri society. While these orders may no longer function institutionally as they once did, their spiritual ethos remains deeply embedded in Kashmiri culture, poetry, and religious sensibility. Kashmiri Sufism has consistently emphasized that there can be no Taṣawwuf without Sharīʿah. Shaykh Nūruddīn (Sheikh-ul-ʿĀlam) categorically affirmed Islamic orthodoxy, declaring: “Muhammad-te zoor yaar barhaq, gunzurukh teman nish andanayay dunhik nayay” (True guidance lies in faith in the Prophet Muhammad –SAW and his companions). This reflects the deep Sunni grounding of Kashmiri spirituality.
Personal Scholarly Engagement with Sufism For nearly forty years, I have been teaching and researching Sufism, having studied almost all major classical texts. My academic engagement includes works such as Kashf al-Mahjūb, Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn, Kimiyā-yi Saʿādat, Risālah al-Qushayriyyah, Qūt al-Qulūb, Fath al-Ghayb, Kulliyāt-i Shaykh al-ʿĀlam, and the writings of Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī. My doctoral research focused on Imam al-Ghazālī, and I have authored works including Sufism in Kashmir, Islam and Sufism in Kashmir, and Saints and Saviours of Islam. My engagement with Sufism is grounded not in family tradition but in formal Islamic scholarship and direct study of original sources.
“Kashmiri Sufism is presented not as a separate entity, but as the essential spiritual core of Islam. Rooted in divine law (Sharīʿah) and ethical discipline, it has historically served as a societal pillar. In the face of modern moral challenges, Sufism remains a vital source of peace and resilience, making the rediscovery of its authentic essence a modern necessity.”
Sufis, Sharīʿah|Quantitative, Not Doctrinal Difference: Sufism in Kashmir has never been doctrinally separate from Islam. Rather, Sufis are distinguished by the intensity and abundance of their devotion. They perform obligatory acts meticulously and engage extensively in nawāfil—voluntary prayers, fasting, charity, night vigils, and remembrance. As stated in the Hadith Qudsi: “My servant continues to draw closer to Me through voluntary acts until I love him.” Thus, the difference between Sufis and the general Muslim population is quantitative, not theological. Classical scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah acknowledged categories of orthodox Sufis—aʾimmat al-hudā—including Junayd, Maʿrūf Karkhī, Fudail Ibn Ayaz ,ʿAbdul Qādir Jilānī, and others. Deviations occurred historically, but they do not define Sufism.
Spirituality, Soul, Moral Consciousness: Human beings are not merely physical entities. At death, the soul departs while the body disintegrates. Spirituality is the nourishment of the soul, cultivated through dhikr, fikr, muraqabah, mujāhadah, and mushāhadah. The Qur’an warns against spiritual degeneration: “They are like cattle; rather, they are more astray.” Without spirituality, human beings may descend into ethical corruption—violence, exploitation, injustice—far surpassing animals in destructiveness.
Sufism The Spiritual Backbone Of Kashmiri Society: Historically, Sufism sustained Kashmiri society through immense political oppression—Dogra, Sikh, Afghan, and British rule. Through mosques and khanqahs, Kashmiris preserved their Islamic identity and moral resilience. Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī alone arrived with nearly 700 Sufis, establishing centers of learning and spirituality. His khanqah reportedly housed nearly 1,500 students. Originally, shrines were educational and spiritual centers, not places of worship. Saints never encouraged saint-worship; they devoted themselves exclusively to Allah. Over time, distortions emerged, but these do not reflect authentic Sufism.
Dhikr, Samāʿ, Ziyārat: Sufi practices such as dhikr—including Awrād-i Fatḥiyyah—remain central. Current scholarly efforts to translate and annotate these works demonstrate their Qur’anic and Hadith foundations. Samāʿ in Kashmir is modest, expressed through spiritual poetry rather than elaborate qawwālī. Ziyārat al-qubūr is practiced in line with Prophetic guidance, as a reminder of death and the hereafter, not as worship.
Modern Materialism, The Need For Sufism: Contemporary society, shaped by materialism and hedonism, increasingly resembles the philosophy of the Chārvākas, who denied the soul. In contrast, spirituality affirms moral law and transcendence. As Kant observed, the moral law within evokes awe alongside the starry heavens above. Today’s youth face a spiritual vacuum. Hence, the modern world needs an enlightened, Sharia-oriented Sufism, free from superstition.
Misrepresentation, Pseudo-Sufism: Certain self-styled figures have gravely misrepresented Tasawwuf, exploiting public reverence and ignorance. Such impostors lack scholarly grounding and spiritual discipline. As a Sufi aphorism states: “Once Sufism was a reality without a name; today it is a name without reality.” The criterion of authenticity remains unwavering: conformity to Qur’an and Sunnah.
Revival, Education, And The Way Forward: There is an urgent need for academic research, curriculum development, and public education on Kashmiri Sufism. Shrines should disseminate literature, not merely offerings. Universities must institutionalize Sufi studies. Kashmir’s true identity lies not in scenic tourism but in its spiritual and intellectual heritage.
Conclusion: Sufism is not separate from Islam; it is Islam’s spiritual heart. Kashmiri Sufism, rooted in Sharīʿah and ethical refinement, has historically sustained society and remains vital today. In an age of moral crisis, Sufism offers inner peace, moral clarity, and spiritual resilience. Rediscovering its authentic essence is not merely desirable—it is essential.
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
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