One of the most frequently raised questions in contemporary Islamic thought concerns the relationship between scholarly disagreement and objective truth. If eminent Muslim scholars, all deeply rooted in the Qur’an, Sunnah, and the Islamic intellectual tradition, arrive at contradictory conclusions on important legal and theological questions, does this imply that Islam lacks an objective standard of truth? Or does the existence of multiple interpretations merely reflect the limitations of human understanding rather than the absence of truth itself? These questions lie at the heart of the philosophical discourse on objectivity, normativity, and religious epistemology. Disagreement is neither unique to Islam nor a sign of intellectual failure. It is an inevitable characteristic of every serious intellectual tradition. Throughout history, philosophical schools, religious traditions, legal systems, and scientific disciplines have developed through debate and disagreement.
Indeed, diversity of opinion is often the driving force behind intellectual progress. Consequently, the mere existence of disagreement cannot be regarded as evidence against the existence of objective truth. Islam, as a comprehensive and universal way of life, recognizes the diversity of human circumstances across different societies and historical periods. Rather than providing detailed rulings for every conceivable situation, the Qur’an establishes universal principles, general ethical norms, and foundational legal maxims that remain applicable across time and place. This deliberate methodology enables Muslim jurists and scholars to derive rulings for new circumstances through ijtihād (independent legal reasoning). Consequently, differences in legal reasoning are not only expected but are, to a considerable extent, unavoidable. The crucial distinction, however, is between objective truth and human interpretation. In Islam, disagreement does not occur because objective truth is absent; rather, it arises because human beings differ in their understanding, interpretation, and application of divine revelation.
Revelation itself remains absolute, whereas human comprehension is necessarily finite and fallible. The Qur’an explicitly addresses this issue by providing an objective mechanism for resolving disputes: “If you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and His Messenger” (Qur’an 4:59). This verse establishes one of the most fundamental epistemological principles in Islam. It does not instruct believers to return to particular personalities, schools, or institutions. Instead, it directs them to the Qur’an and the authentic Sunnah as the ultimate criteria of truth. Thus, Islam distinguishes between the authority of revelation and the authority of interpreters. Scholars occupy a position of immense respect, but they are never regarded as infallible. Their opinions derive authority only insofar as they faithfully reflect the primary sources of Islam.
This feature distinguishes Islam from many philosophical and religious systems. René Descartes famously observed: “There is not even a single proposition on which all the philosophers agree.” His statement illustrates the absence of universally accepted first principles within philosophy itself.
Likewise, Jawaharlal Nehru described Hinduism by remarking: “Hinduism is everything to everyone.” Although these observations may be debated, they highlight an important philosophical point: where no universally binding objective criterion exists, interpretation itself often becomes the ultimate authority. Competing interpretations then coexist without any final standard by which they may be evaluated. Islam adopts a fundamentally different epistemological position. It does not claim that all scholars will always agree. Rather, it claims that despite scholarly disagreement, there exists a permanent and objective standard by which all opinions are to be judged. This standard is neither an individual scholar nor a particular school of law, but the revealed guidance of Allah preserved in the Qur’an and explained by the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW).
“Scholarly disagreement in Islam reflects human interpretive limits and dynamic intellectual inquiry, not a lack of objective truth. While human understanding through ijtihād leads to differing opinions, the Qur’an and Sunnah remain the permanent, unchanging foundations of absolute divine guidance.”
The Qur’an repeatedly describes itself as al-Furqān, “the Criterion” that distinguishes truth from falsehood, and as Muhaimin, the guardian and authoritative standard over previous revelations (Qur’an 5:48). It further describes true faith as grasping al-‘Urwah al-Wuthqā—the firmest and unbreakable support: “Whoever holds firmly to the strongest handhold has grasped that which will never break” (Qur’an 2:256). These verses affirm that Islam possesses an objective and enduring foundation independent of changing personalities, political authorities, or historical circumstances. Nevertheless, one may ask why respected scholars continue to differ if the objective standard is so clear. The answer lies in the nature of ijtihād.
Jurists may differ over the authenticity of a particular hadith, the linguistic implications of a Qur’anic verse, the reconciliation of apparently conflicting texts, the application of legal analogy (qiyās), considerations of public welfare (maṣlaḥah), or the objectives of Islamic law (maqāṣid al-sharī’ah). Such methodological differences naturally produce different legal conclusions.
The classical debate concerning music illustrates this point. Scholars such as Imam al-Ghazālī, Imam al-Shawkānī, and several later scholars presented arguments that permitted certain forms of music under specific conditions. Other equally distinguished scholars concluded, based on different textual analyses and legal reasoning, that music should generally be prohibited. Their disagreement does not demonstrate the absence of objective truth; rather, it reflects differing assessments of the evidence and differing methodologies of interpretation. Islamic jurisprudence never embraced epistemological relativism. Not every opinion is considered equally valid.
Classical uṣūl al-fiqh developed sophisticated principles for evaluating competing opinions through the strength of evidence, authenticity of reports, linguistic analysis, consensus (ijmā’), analogy (qiyās), legal objectives, and other recognized methodological tools. Consequently, Islamic scholarship distinguishes between stronger (rājiḥ) and weaker (marjūḥ) opinions instead of treating all interpretations as equally correct. The great Imams themselves recognized the provisional nature of human reasoning. Imam al-Shāfi’ī famously stated: “My opinion is correct but may contain error; the opinion of another is mistaken but may contain truth.” This profound statement captures the balance between confidence in one’s scholarly conclusions and humility regarding human fallibility. It neither denies objective truth nor claims infallibility for human interpretation. The distinction between revelation and interpretation is therefore essential. Objective truth belongs to Allah alone. Divine revelation is perfect, absolute, and free from contradiction.
Human beings, however, approach that revelation through language, historical context, intellectual capacity, and methodological reasoning. Consequently, disagreement belongs to the realm of human understanding, not to revelation itself. From the perspective of contemporary philosophy, Islam rejects both extremes. It rejects rigid authoritarianism that identifies truth with particular individuals or institutions, and it equally rejects postmodern relativism, which reduces truth to competing interpretations without any objective foundation. Instead, Islam proposes a balanced epistemology in which objective truth exists independently of human opinion, while acknowledging that human access to that truth is mediated through sincere scholarship, disciplined methodology, and continual engagement with the primary sources.
In conclusion, the existence of scholarly disagreement should not be interpreted as evidence against objective truth in Islam. Rather, it demonstrates the intellectual vitality of a tradition that encourages reasoned inquiry while maintaining an unchanging normative foundation. The Qur’an and the Sunnah constitute the permanent objective criteria of truth; scholars strive to understand and apply these sources through ijtihād. Differences of opinion therefore reflect the limitations of human interpretation rather than any deficiency in divine guidance. Islam thus affirms both the existence of absolute truth and the necessity of intellectual humility in humanity’s ongoing search to understand and implement it.
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
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