The definition of a mountain is a part of Earth that is very wide, has a taller height than a hill and often has steep sides, or it is a large pile of something. Mountains are characterized with the association of peaks, valleys, intermountain plateaus, plains, glaciers and rivers which differ in origin, structure, arrangement of rocks, location, size and geological periods. Modern earth science have proven that mountains have deep roots under the surface of the ground and that these roots can reach several times their elevations above the surface of the ground. So the suitable word to describe mountains on the basis of this information is the word ‘peg’, since most of a properly set peg is hidden under the surface of the ground. The history of science tells us that the theory of mountains having deep roots was introduced only in the latter half of the nineteenth century [Geological Concept of Mountains p.5] Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism and these forces can locally raise the surface of the Earth. Mountains erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather conditions, and glaciers. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in huge mountain ranges. High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level. These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains and different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction and recreation, such as mountain climbing and skiing. The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171 m (69,459 ft). Mountains make up about one-fifth of the world’s landscape, and provide homes to at least one-tenth of the world’s people. Heights of mountains are generally given as heights above sea level. Most of the world’s rivers are fed from mountain sources, with snow acting as a storage mechanism for downstream users. Mountains are generally less preferable for human habitation than lowlands, because of harsh weather and little level ground suitable for agriculture. More than half of humanity depends on mountains for water. In geopolitics mountains are often seen as preferable “natural boundaries” between polities. The geographical classification of mountains is given as (a) Mountain range: system of mountains and hills having several ridges, peaks, summits and valleys which stretches in linear manner e.g. Himalayan mountain ranges (b) Mountain chain: several parallel long and narrow mountains of different periods (c) Mountain system: Different Mountain ranges of the same period which are separated by valleys (d) Mountain group: several unsystematic pattern of different mountain system (e) Cordillera: community of mountains having different ridges, ranges, mountain chains and mountain systems e.g. mountainous region of western part of N. America. The classification of Mountains on the basis of height is as (a) Low mountains height ranges between 700 to 1000m (b) Rough mountain ranges between 1000m to 1500m (c) Rugged mountains ranges between 1500to 2000m (d) High mountains ranges above 2000m. The classification of mountains on the basis of location is given as (a) Coastal mountains are large mountain system which includes Appalachian, Rockies, Alpine mountain chains, western and Eastern Ghats of India (b) Oceanic mountains are located on continental shelves and ocean floor and most of the oceanic mountains are below water surface and are volcanic in nature, e.g. Mauna kea in Hawaii and Inland mountains includes Ural Mountains (Russia), Aravalli, Himalayas (India). The classification on the basis of mode of origin is given as (a) Tectonic mountains: Tectonic Mountains are caused due to tectonic forces. These forces are Comprehensive and tensile forces driven by endogenetic forces coming from deep inside the earth and are divided into different types as (i) Folded mountains are originated by compressive forces and have been formed due to folding of sedimentary rock strata and gave birth to fold mountains e.g. Himalayas of Asia, Alps of Europe (ii) Block Mountains are the result of faulting originated by tensile forces driven by exogenetic forces which are coming from within the earth and leads to formation of rift valleys are known as Horst Mountains e.g. Vosges in Germany (iii) Dome Mountains are originated by magmatic intrusions and upwarping of crustal surface e.g. lava domes, batholithic domes, laccolith domes (iv) Mountain of accumulation are formed due to accumulation of volcanic materials which are volcanic in nature and are called volcanic mountains e.g. acid lava cones, basic lava cones (b) Relict mountains: Relict mountains are those mountains which have been eroded by the agents of degradation such as winds, rain, frost and running water. The hard rocks that are left behind are called residual mountains e.g. Aravalli, satpura in India. The classification of on the basis of period of origin is (i) Precambrian mountains belong to the Pre-Cambrian period, a period that extended for more than 4 billion years where the rocks have been subjected to upheaval, denudation and metamorphosis. So, the remnants appear as relict mountains some of the examples are Laurentian Mountains, Algoma Mountains (N America) (ii) Caledonian Mountains are a European mountain range which formed during Silurian and Devonian periods. E.g. Taconic Mountains of Appalachian system, mountains of Scotland, Ireland and Scandinavia (iii) Hercynian Mountains formed during the Hercynian orogeny (mountain-building episode) of the Carboniferous Period (between about 360 and 300 million years ago) have been largely worn down by erosion e.g. Armorican Massif in Europe (iv) Alpine mountains are highest and most extensive mountain range system formed during tertiary period. Rockies in n. America, Andes in south America , alpine mountain system of Europe, Himalayas and mountains coming out of Pamir knot- Taurus, Kunlun Elburz. The main benefits of mountains are listed as (a) Many minerals are found in the rocks of mountains such as gold, iron ore, mica, gems, and mineral oil (b) Mountains encompass some of the most spectacular landscapes, a great diversity of species and habitat types, and distinctive human communities and are the backbones of tourism which contributes to development (c) Mountains are the safety roofs to the people of mountain region. They reduce the speed of rapidly moving wind. This is the reason the mountainous countries do not suffer from hurricane, tornado (d) Mountains are the source of medicine. Many herbal plants and fresh air is found and are the symbolic of purity (e) Mountains play a key role in providing renewable energy through hydropower, solar power, wind power and biogas (f) Mountains also store water in various ways, including the formation of snow and ice which is later released as melt-off during warmer periods. In semi-arid and arid regions, over 70 to 90 percent of river flows come from mountains which support agriculture sustainability and food security (g) If it weren’t for mountains, our planet might be an orbiting husk. That’s the finding of a new paper in the journal Nature (pay wall), which suggests mountains act as elevators for minerals deep in the earth that may play a crucial role in stabilizing the atmosphere. The major religions of the world guides us to protect mountains as they are very beneficial for human beings. Mountains often play a significant role in religions and philosophical beliefs. There are for example a number of sacred mountains within Greece such as Mount Olympus which was held to be the home of the gods. In Japanese culture, the 3,776.24 m (12,389 ft) volcano of Mount Fuji is also held to be sacred with tens of thousands of Japanese ascending it each year. Mount Kailash, in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, is considered to be sacred in four religions: Hinduism, Bon, Buddhism, and Jainism. In Ireland, pilgrimages are made up the 952 metres (3,123 ft) Mount Brandon by Irish Catholics. The Himalayan peak of Nanda Devi is associated with the Hindu goddesses Nanda and Sunanda; it has been off-limits to climbers since 1983. The holy Quran mentions the existence of colorful mountains as one of Allah’s creations. Here is the verse of the Quran, 35:27–28 (Have you not seen that Allah sends down water from the sky? With it We produce fruits of various colors. And in the mountains are streaks of white and red — varying in their hue — and pitch-black. Likewise, human beings, animals, and livestock come in various colors. From among His servants, the learned fear Allah. Allah is Almighty, Oft-Forgiving ) There is reference about roots of mountains in the Holy Quran “Have we not made the earth as a wide expanse. And mountain as Pegs?” (Quran, 78:6–7). In geology, modern science has recently discovered the phenomenon of folding which formed the mountain ranges. The earth’s crust is like a solid shell, while the deeper layers are hot and fluid, and thus inhospitable to any form of life. It has also been discovered that the stability of mountains is linked to the phenomenon of folding. The process of mountain formation by folding drove the earth’s crust down into the lower layers and provided foundations for the mountains. Modern earth sciences have proven that mountains have deep roots under the surface of the ground and that these roots can reach several times their elevations above the surface of the ground. So the most suitable word to describe mountains on the basis of this information is the word ‘peg,’ since most of a properly set peg is hidden under the surface of the ground. The history of science tells us that the theory of mountains having deep roots was introduced only in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Mountains also play an important role in stabilizing the crust of the earth. They hinder the shaking of the earth. God has said in the Quran: And He has set firm mountains in the earth so that it would not shake with you…(Quran, 16:15). Likewise, the modern theory of plate tectonics holds that mountains work as stabilizers for the earth. This knowledge about the role of mountains as stabilizers for the earth has just begun to be understood in the framework of plate tectonics since the late 1960’s.
In holy Quran, the Almighty Allah invites men of understanding/ knowledge/ intelligence to think about the issues which other people overlook, or just dismiss using such barren terms as “evolution”, “coincidence”, or “a miracle of nature”. ( Surely in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and in the alternation of night and day, there are signs for men of understanding. those who remember Allah while standing, sitting or (reclining) on their backs, and reflect in the creation of the heavens and the earth, (saying): ‘Our Lord! You have not created this in vain. Glory to You! Save us, then, from the chastisement of the Fire ) (Quran 3:190–191) As we see in these verses, people of understanding see the signs of Allah and try to comprehend His eternal knowledge, power and art by remembering and reflecting on them, for Allah’s knowledge is limitless, and His creation flawless. For men of understanding, everything around them is a sign of this creation. In view of the importance of mountains, we have responsibilities as humans towards mountains like (a) Ensure conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems includes mountains in lines with obligation under international agreement (b) Sustainable Mountain Development incorporates 2030 Agenda which notes that mountains are an important source of water, energy, biological diversity, key resources, such as minerals, forest products and agricultural products, and of recreation (c) focuses on the impact that sustainable management of natural resources has on social and economic development (d) Vulnerability of fragile mountain ecosystems to the adverse impacts of climate change, deforestation and forest degradation, land use change, land degradation and natural disasters, the marginalisation of its communities (e) Effective involvement and sharing of experience of all relevant stakeholders and to adopt a long-term vision and holistic approaches (f) Incorporating mountain-specific policies into national sustainable development strategies, which could include, inter alia, poverty reduction plans and programmes for mountain areas. The International days are occasions to educate the public on issues of concern, to mobilize political will and resources to address global problems, and to celebrate and reinforce achievements of humanity. International Mountain Day is celebrated annually on 11 December to create awareness about the importance of mountains to life, to highlight the opportunities and constraints in mountain development, and to build alliances that will bring positive change to mountain peoples and environments around the world. The United Nations’ General Assembly nominated 11 December as “International Mountain Day” in 2002 and this day(IMD) was firstly observed in 2003. The United Nations(UN) proclaimed “Sustainable mountain tourism” as the theme for International Mountain Day 2021. Mountains are the most attractive part of tourism. The Covid-19 pandemic badly affected the sector of tourism, which created a crisis of economic and livelihoods for mountain communities. The United Nations is ambitious of mountain tourism by creating this theme. Mountains are a vital source of water, food and energy. More than one billion people in the world are habitant of mountain areas. The Alps mountain range in Europe is the most populated mountain range area in the world. Worldwide climate change is severely affecting mountain and mountain people. Global warming is a significant reason for the melting of mountain glaciers at untraditional rates. Climate change and climate disasters can affect the lives of mountain people by food shortage and poverty. This may cause an excessive migration of mountain people to urban areas. The basic purpose of this special day is to create awareness about the importance of mountains and mountain people and to provoke the governments to launch urgent policies to alleviate the harsh living conditions of mountain people. Nomads of Jammu and Kashmir, mostly from the Gujjar and Bakkarwal communities living in temporary sheds or mud houses in forests and mountains, are being allegedly forcibly evicted by the government. In mid-November 2020, the Government invoked Forest Act and began issuing eviction notices to Gujjars, Tribals, and other traditional forest-dwellers, and as many as 63000 eviction notices were issued. Some Gujjar huts in villages that were close to forests were also demolished. Forest Department should not harass Gujjars, Bakarwals and other forest dwellers. “To implement the law, people, as well as officials, need to be trained. In view of the role of Gujjar and Bakkarwal communities towards mountains, everyone should support these poor people who were living on these mountains since centuries. This day aims to raise awareness about indigenous peoples and minorities who live in mountain environments and the relevance of their cultural heritage, traditions and customs. May Allah guide us all to protect environment. (Ameen!)
( While Dr. Shaikh Ghulam Rasool is Chairperson J&K, RTI Movement, Dr. Bilal Ahmad Bhat is working as Sr. Scientist at S K University Of Agriculture Sciences & Technology Kashmir- SKUAST-K Shalimar Srinagar. Views are their own)
[email protected]