Allama Muhammad Iqbal occupies a distinguished position in modern intellectual history as a poet, philosopher and thinker who sought to awaken the moral, spiritual and intellectual consciousness of humanity. His significance extends far beyond poetry or literary expression. He developed a comprehensive vision of human existence, Islamic civilisation, individual freedom, social justice and the renewal of religious thought. At a time when Muslim societies were experiencing political decline, intellectual stagnation and the pressures of colonial domination, Iqbal called for a reconstruction of Muslim consciousness through a creative engagement with the Qur’an, Islamic intellectual traditions and modern knowledge. His thought remains particularly relevant in an age marked by technological transformation, moral uncertainty, social fragmentation and global crises.
One of the central concepts of Iqbal’s philosophy is Khudi, or the development of the self. It does not signify arrogance, egotism or individual self-interest; rather, it represents the cultivation of human personality through faith, discipline, knowledge, moral courage and purposeful action. Iqbal believed that human beings are not passive creatures condemned to accept their circumstances. They possess the capacity to shape their lives and contribute to the transformation of society. In the contemporary world, where consumerism, digital dependency and social alienation frequently weaken human individuality, the philosophy of Khudi offers a powerful reminder of human dignity, responsibility and creative potential.
Iqbal also sought to reconcile reason and spiritual experience. He did not regard rational inquiry and scientific investigation as enemies of religion. Instead, he maintained that intellectual reflection and spiritual insight should complement one another. His lectures, published as The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, represent a serious attempt to reconsider Islamic theology and philosophy in the light of modern scientific and philosophical developments. He encouraged Muslims to engage critically with contemporary knowledge rather than retreat into intellectual isolation. For Iqbal, religion was not merely a collection of inherited beliefs or rituals; it was a dynamic experience that should inspire ethical action, intellectual exploration and the transformation of human life. The foundation of Iqbal’s worldview was the Islamic principle of Tawhid, the unity and sovereignty of God. This principle provides the basis for human equality, moral accountability and the unity of creation.
Iqbal understood Islam as a comprehensive spiritual and civilisational framework that integrates faith, knowledge, justice and social responsibility. His deep attachment to the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) was central to his understanding of Islamic ethics. Prophetic guidance represented the ideal of compassion, justice, humility, courage and service to humanity. In an age of violence, intolerance and moral confusion, this ethical dimension of Iqbal’s thought deserves renewed attention. His conception of human fraternity was equally significant. Iqbal criticised racial arrogance, religious prejudice and narrow forms of nationalism that divide humanity. Although his intellectual journey included an early expression of patriotism, he later developed a broader vision centred on the spiritual and ethical unity of the Muslim community and the dignity of all human beings. His understanding of the Ummah was not intended to promote hostility towards other communities.
Rather, it emphasised solidarity, mutual responsibility and the possibility of a just international order. His thought encourages dialogue among religious and cultural traditions while resisting the forces of domination, discrimination and exclusion. Iqbal’s economic philosophy also has contemporary relevance. He criticised systems that legitimise exploitation, concentration of wealth and the degradation of human dignity. He believed that economic life must be governed by justice and ethical responsibility. The widening gap between rich and poor, unemployment, insecure labour and the exploitation of vulnerable populations demonstrate the continuing importance of his concerns. An Islamic economic vision, informed by Iqbal’s ethical outlook, must therefore promote equitable opportunities, social welfare, responsible ownership and the protection of human dignity.

“Allama Iqbal’s legacy extends beyond mere ceremonial tributes and poetic quotes; it demands rigorous critical study, historical context, and modern application. His lasting contribution is an integrated vision where intellectual renewal, spiritual grounding, social justice, and human dignity progress together. Rather than just anticipating modern challenges, Iqbal provides an ethical framework for building a civilization that balances scientific advancement with moral values, individual freedom with social welfare, and progress with human purpose.”

Another major contribution of Iqbal was his emphasis on Ijtihad, the principle of independent reasoning and intellectual renewal within the framework of Islam. He believed that Muslim societies could not respond effectively to changing circumstances through mechanical imitation or uncritical dependence on inherited interpretations. At the same time, renewal must remain rooted in the Qur’an, Sunnah and the intellectual objectives of Islam. Contemporary challenges require collective scholarship involving theologians, philosophers, scientists, economists, legal experts and social researchers. Such interdisciplinary engagement can help Islamic thought respond constructively to emerging questions without compromising its foundational principles.
The rapid development of artificial intelligence, biotechnology, digital communication and data-driven systems makes Iqbal’s emphasis on human agency especially important. Technology has expanded access to knowledge and created unprecedented opportunities for education, research and communication. Yet it has also raised serious concerns about privacy, surveillance, algorithmic discrimination, misinformation, employment and the manipulation of human behaviour. The central question is whether technological progress will strengthen human dignity or reduce individuals to instruments of commercial and political systems. Iqbal’s philosophy of Khudi reminds us that technology must remain subordinate to human moral purpose.
These developments can also be examined through the objectives of Islamic law, or Maqasid al-Shariah: the protection of religion, life, intellect, family and property. Digital technologies should protect privacy, preserve intellectual freedom, prevent exploitation, promote social welfare and safeguard human relationships. Artificial intelligence must be developed and employed within an ethical framework that recognises accountability, justice and human dignity. The integration of Islamic values with contemporary scientific and technological knowledge is therefore an urgent intellectual and institutional responsibility.
Education was another important dimension of Iqbal’s vision. He wanted an educational system that would cultivate independent thought, spiritual awareness, scientific understanding and social responsibility. Education should not merely produce individuals trained for employment; it should develop morally conscious and intellectually creative citizens. The integration of revealed knowledge and acquired knowledge is particularly important in this context. Muslim educational institutions must move beyond the artificial division between religious and modern disciplines and encourage research that connects philosophy, science, humanities, technology and ethics.
Iqbal also placed great hope in young people. He viewed youth as a dynamic force capable of renewing society through courage, creativity and commitment. His message is especially relevant to young generations confronted with unemployment, uncertainty, ideological extremism and the pressures of digital culture. They require education, meaningful opportunities and ethical leadership that enables them to become responsible contributors to society. His literary and philosophical works, including Asrar-e-Khudi, Rumuz-e-Bekhudi, Bal-e-Jibril, Zarb-e-Kalim and Javid Nama, offer valuable insights into the relationship between individual development, collective responsibility and spiritual aspiration.
Iqbal’s environmental relevance should also be recognised. His understanding of humanity as an active participant in creation can inspire responsible stewardship of the natural world. Climate change, environmental degradation and the unsustainable exploitation of resources demand a moral outlook that connects human freedom with accountability towards creation. The Islamic conception of human trusteeship, read alongside Iqbal’s emphasis on purposeful action, can contribute to an ethical environmental consciousness.
Ultimately, Iqbal should neither be confined to ceremonial remembrance nor reduced to selected poetic quotations. His thought requires critical study, historical contextualisation and creative application. His lasting contribution lies in his insistence that intellectual renewal, spiritual vitality, social justice and human dignity must advance together. The contemporary relevance of Iqbal is therefore not simply that he anticipated certain modern problems, but that he offered a philosophical and ethical framework through which humanity can confront them. His vision calls for an intellectually confident, spiritually grounded and socially responsible civilisation—one that embraces scientific progress without surrendering moral values, values individual freedom without neglecting collective welfare, and seeks progress without losing sight of its ultimate human purpose.
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“Islam rejects superstition, teaching that no created object or time determines human fortune. Instead, it combines faith, reason, moral responsibility, and reliance on Allah to overcome irrational fears and pursue truth through knowledge and action.”

A bird’s call, a broken mirror, or an ordinary household activity does not establish that misfortune will follow. Nor should harmless activities be declared religiously forbidden merely because of local superstition. The relevant distinction is between demonstrable causes and imagined connections. Another concern is consulting astrologers, palmists, and fortune-tellers who claim to reveal future events through unsupported methods. The Qur’an states that knowledge of the unseen belongs to Allah (Qur’an 27:65), while explaining that He may disclose what He wills to chosen messengers (Qur’an 72:26–27). Muslims should therefore distinguish evidence-based forecasting, including scientific weather predictions, from unsupported claims of supernatural knowledge.
Consequences And Remedies: Superstition weakens intellectual independence and may undermine Tawḥīd when people attribute independent supernatural powers to objects, animals, or particular times. Its psychological consequences include anxiety, indecision, and unnecessary fear. Socially and economically, such beliefs may cause people to postpone marriages, journeys, educational opportunities, or business decisions without any rational justification. The remedy begins with sound religious understanding. Believers should strengthen their faith, cultivate reliance upon Allah, observe appropriate supplications, and distinguish genuine dangers from imaginary threats. Faith in divine decree (Qadar) does not eliminate human responsibility. Rather, Muslims must assess circumstances, seek expert advice, take reasonable precautions, and act with wisdom. Superstition also creates opportunities for charlatans who exploit grief, illness, insecurity, and financial hardship. Individuals claiming miraculous powers may demand money, manipulate vulnerable people, or disguise fraudulent practices in religious language. Muslim communities should counter such exploitation through education, scientific awareness, critical thinking, and consultation with trustworthy scholars and qualified professionals. Religious authority must never become an instrument for deception. A rational approach does not require dismissing every unusual experience without examination. It requires evaluating claims according to appropriate evidence, distinguishing established knowledge from speculation, and refusing to confuse personal impressions with universal truths. Similarly, recognising natural causes does not negate belief in Allah; it encourages responsible engagement with the world He created.
Conclusion: Islam’s position is clear: no created object, bird, day, or month independently determines human fortune. The Islamic response to uncertainty combines faith, reason, practical effort, ethical conduct, and reliance upon Allah. Material events should be assessed through reliable evidence, while spiritual life should remain free from fabricated beliefs and exploitative practices. True Islamic spirituality enlightens the intellect, strengthens the heart, and promotes responsibility towards others. It does not enslave people to irrational fears or make them dependent upon charlatans. By combining Tawḥīd with knowledge, reflection, and moral discernment, Islam offers a framework for overcoming superstition and pursuing truth. Its enduring message is that genuine faith encourages intellectual honesty, positive action, and sincere devotion to the One God.
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“Digital tools should support Islamic learning and responsible outreach without turning worship into self-promotion. Religious authority must protect the sanctity and privacy of prayer spaces, as true worship (Ikhlas) is measured solely by Allah’s acceptance and devotion to Him—not by views, likes, or public approval.”

Al-Ghazali’s analysis provides an important framework for examining digital religious practices. Religious content creators, imams and reciters should therefore ask themselves a fundamental question: Would they maintain the same enthusiasm, concentration and excellence in worship if no camera were present and nobody except Allah could witness their actions? This question makes self-examination indispensable. The early Muslim scholars and spiritual masters demonstrated extraordinary concern for protecting their devotional lives from public display. Ayyub al-Sakhtiyani reportedly concealed his night prayers whenever he feared that someone might discover them.
Ibrahim al-Nakha’i would cover his Quranic manuscript when an unexpected visitor entered. Such examples reflect a spiritual culture in which good deeds were treated as private treasures between the individual and Allah. This tradition stands in contrast to contemporary practices in which journeys to Makkah, emotional moments during supplication and voluntary night prayers are routinely recorded and published to attract digital engagement.
Nevertheless, it would be incorrect to conclude that Islam prohibits the use of modern communication technologies for religious purposes. A necessary distinction must be maintained between disseminating religious knowledge and displaying personal acts of worship. Recording academic lectures, Quranic explanations, scholarly discussions, Fatawa, educational seminars and intellectual debates can serve important religious and educational objectives. Such activities facilitate learning, expand access to knowledge and strengthen public understanding of Islam. In many circumstances, their dissemination may fulfil a collective religious responsibility.
The greater concern arises when intimate devotional activities, including congregational prayers, personal supplications and spiritual retreats, are unnecessarily transformed into public spectacles. These practices are fundamentally expressions of humility, submission and dependence upon Allah. Their routine exposure to digital audiences can introduce avoidable spiritual distractions. The mosque, in particular, must retain its character as a sanctuary of remembrance, tranquillity and concentration. The Quran states: “In houses which Allah has ordered to be raised and in which His name is mentioned.” (Al-Nur, 24:36). Continuous filming may disturb worshippers, weaken their concentration and create self-consciousness about their appearance and movements. Furthermore, social media metrics, including views, likes, followers and comments, can gradually encourage religious activities to be evaluated through popularity rather than spiritual worth.
Therefore, Muslims must learn to benefit from technological advancement without compromising the sanctity of worship. Digital platforms should facilitate religious education, intellectual engagement and responsible Da’wah, rather than turn private devotion into an instrument of self-promotion. Religious institutions and scholars should establish appropriate safeguards to preserve the dignity of mosques and the spiritual privacy of worshippers. Ultimately, the success of worship cannot be measured by the number of people who watch it, appreciate it or share it. Its true worth lies in its acceptance by Allah. The central purpose of worship is not to elevate oneself in the eyes of people but to seek the pleasure of the Creator. This is the essence of Ikhlas, the demand of Tawhid and the enduring foundation of Islamic spirituality.

(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“The preservation of the Qur’an is supported by early oral and written transmission, historical compilation under Abu Bakr and Uthman, and material evidence like ancient manuscripts (such as the Birmingham leaves and Sana’a palimpsest). For Muslims, this textual continuity fulfills the divine promise of preservation, keeping the Qur’an alive through written texts, memories, and daily practice.”

Manuscript Evidence: The Birmingham Qur’an, held at the University of Birmingham, comprises two parchment leaves containing parts of several chapters. Radiocarbon testing dated the parchment to 568–645 CE, with 95.4 per cent probability. This is important early evidence, although the test dates the animal skin, not the precise application of the ink. The Sana’a palimpsest, discovered in Yemen, also deserves attention. Its lower text contains variants from the standard Uthmanic tradition. Behnam Sadeghi and Mohsen Goudarzi have studied their significance. Such variants should be acknowledged and assessed individually; their existence does not itself establish wholesale alteration. Most known Qur’anic manuscripts belong to the Uthmanic text type and show substantial continuity with the standard text. The significance is not that every manuscript is identical in every detail, but that a recognisable and stable textual tradition was established early and transmitted widely. The evidence should be evaluated cumulatively: manuscripts, recitation, historical reports and communal practice illuminate one another and strengthen the historical case for textual continuity.
The Living Oral Tradition: The Qur’an has never depended exclusively upon manuscripts. Muslims have memorised it, recited it in daily prayers and transmitted it through teachers and recognised chains. The canonical modes of recitation, known as Qira’at, follow established scholarly rules. Differences may concern pronunciation, vowelisation, grammar or particular transmitted readings; they should not be confused with uncontrolled alteration. Oral and written transmission together support the text’s preservation.
Preservation And Authenticity: Early manuscripts, historical accounts and the broad agreement of the Uthmanic tradition provide substantial evidence of textual stability. Continuous memorisation adds another dimension, since preservation has not depended upon one library or authority. The Qur’an invites reflection upon its coherence (4:82) and challenges humanity to produce something comparable (17:88). These are theological and literary arguments, not manuscript findings. Historical research supports the text’s early existence and continuity; belief in its divine origin also involves theological consideration of its message and the prophethood of Muhammad.
A Continuing Responsibility: Preservation is more than reproducing words. The Qur’an offers guidance (17:9) and calls readers to reflection (38:29). Muslims must therefore maintain accurate recitation, sound understanding and responsible interpretation, embodying its teachings of justice, compassion, truthfulness, knowledge and accountability.
Conclusion: The Qur’an’s preservation reflects divine promise, early Muslim efforts, manuscript evidence and continuous oral transmission. It was recited and written during the Prophet’s lifetime, collected under Abu Bakr, standardised under Uthman and transmitted by generations of believers. The Birmingham leaves offer an early material witness; the Sana’a palimpsest encourages transparent scholarship. Together with manuscript agreement and living recitation, the evidence supports substantial textual continuity. For Muslims, this history reflects Allah’s promise: “And indeed, We will surely preserve it” (15:9). The Qur’an remains a living revelation in written copies, in the memories of reciters and in the lives of those who follow its guidance.

(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“Islam harmonizes love with responsibility, mercy with justice, and spirituality with discipline to reform the heart and establish moral conduct. Rather than relying on intimidation, it guides humanity toward inner tranquillity, righteousness, and spiritual growth through loving submission and divine mercy.”

Allah is independent of creation. Worship cultivates gratitude, discipline, humility and consciousness of the Creator. Ritual becomes spiritually meaningful when animated by sincerity. Islamic obligations must also be understood through divine mercy and human capacity. The Qur’an declares, “Allah intends ease for you and does not intend hardship for you” (2:185), and that Allah does not burden a soul beyond its capacity (2:286). The Prophet ﷺ instructed believers to make matters easy, not difficult, and to give glad tidings rather than drive people away (Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim). Religious discipline is therefore not intended to crush human beings but to guide them towards moral and spiritual development.
The Islamic teaching concerning family relationships further demonstrates the harmony between obligation and compassion. The Prophet ﷺ taught that the true maintainer of kinship is not merely someone who reciprocates kindness, but one who maintains relationships even when relatives sever them (Sahih al-Bukhari). However, Islamic jurisprudence recognises that maintaining family ties does not require a person to endure serious harm. When personal visits become damaging, communication and other appropriate means may preserve the relationship. Islam encourages patience without legitimising abuse and forgiveness without denying human dignity.
The Qur’an commands believers to repel evil with what is better (41:34). The Prophet ﷺ also declared that Allah does not show mercy to those who do not show mercy to others (Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim). These teachings demonstrate that worship must transform character. Prayer cannot compensate for persistent cruelty, exploitation or injustice. Religious commitment must manifest itself in ethical conduct. Islamic mercy extends beyond Muslims and beyond humanity. The Prophet (SAW) taught kindness towards neighbours, children, elderly people and animals. He narrated the forgiveness of a person who gave water to a thirsty dog and condemned a woman who imprisoned a cat without feeding it. These narrations demonstrate that compassion is a practical religious obligation, not merely an abstract sentiment.
The distinction between divine accountability and human intimidation is equally important. Islam does not authorise religious authorities to manipulate people through threats. The Qur’an declares, “There is no compulsion in religion” (2:256), and instructs believers to invite others through wisdom and beautiful counsel (16:125). Religious guidance must therefore be communicated with knowledge, patience and respect. The most direct answer to the claim that love makes obedience unnecessary appears in the Qur’an: “Say: If you love Allah, then follow me; Allah will love you and forgive your sins” (3:31). Love is not merely an emotional declaration; it finds expression in following divine guidance. Obedience, properly understood, becomes an expression of love rather than its opposite.
Ultimately, Islam does not ask humanity to choose between love and responsibility, mercy and justice, or spirituality and discipline. It seeks to transform fear into moral consciousness, worship into spiritual growth and compassion into a way of life. Its objective is not merely to regulate outward gestures but to reform the heart, purify conduct and establish justice. The Qur’an expresses this spiritual destination beautifully: “Surely, in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find tranquility” (13:28). Islam is therefore not a religion of intimidation, but a comprehensive path of loving submission, divine mercy, moral responsibility and spiritual tranquility.
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“Gandhi’s ethical legacy and Islam’s core teachings on justice, mercy, and cooperation offer a powerful framework for interfaith peace and collective action. By demonstrating that true peace demands active justice, mutual respect, and standing up for the rights of others—rather than mere tolerance or claiming authority over another’s faith—Gandhi’s engagement with Islam serves as a lasting model for meaningful dialogue and religious coexistence.”

Gandhi And The Khilafat Movement: Gandhi’s support for the Khilafat Movement after the First World War marked a significant episode in Hindu-Muslim relations. Indian Muslim leaders, particularly Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, mobilised support to defend the Ottoman Caliphate, which they considered an institution of religious and political importance. Gandhi supported their movement and sought to unite Hindus and Muslims against British colonial rule. Through the Non-Cooperation Movement, he advocated boycotts and peaceful resistance as alternatives to violent confrontation. He believed that solidarity with Muslim concerns could strengthen the struggle for Indian independence and promote national unity. The alliance was not without difficulties. The Khilafat Movement had religious and international objectives that did not entirely coincide with Gandhi’s broader political programme. Its decline following the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924 revealed the limitations of political alliances shaped by changing international circumstances. Nevertheless, this episode remains an important example of cross-religious cooperation. It demonstrates that communities with different religious commitments can work together for shared objectives without abandoning their distinct identities. It also illustrates the importance of understanding Muslim political aspirations on their own terms rather than interpreting them exclusively through Gandhi’s vision of Indian nationalism.
Gandhi and the Protection of Muslims during Partition. Gandhi’s commitment to Hindu-Muslim harmony became particularly evident during the communal violence accompanying the Partition of India in 1947.
At a time when fear, displacement and retaliatory attacks threatened the lives of millions, he appealed to people of all communities to reject hatred and protect innocent civilians. His peace efforts in Noakhali, Bihar, Calcutta and Delhi reflected his conviction that the suffering of one community could never justify violence against another. In Calcutta, his presence and fast in August 1947 contributed to efforts to restore peace. In Delhi, he pressed for the protection of Muslims and for the fulfilment of commitments necessary to restore communal confidence. Gandhi’s position was morally significant because he defended vulnerable people even when doing so provoked opposition from sections of his own community. His assassination on 30 January 1948 by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist opposed to aspects of Gandhi’s political and communal outlook, revealed the grave dangers of ideological extremism. The Qur’an provides a powerful ethical parallel in its command: “Let not the hatred of a people prevent you from being just” (5:8). Both Gandhi’s example and this Qur’anic principle challenge collective blame and retaliatory violence. Gandhi’s defence of Muslims should not, however, be interpreted as evidence that his understanding of Islam was identical to Muslim self-understanding. Rather, it demonstrated his conviction that protecting human life and defending the rights of minorities were moral obligations irrespective of religious identity.
Non-Violence, Islamic Ethics: Convergences And Differences: Gandhi’s philosophy of Ahimsa and Satyagraha emphasised non-violence, truth and the moral transformation of society. Islam likewise promotes peace, mercy, justice and reconciliation. The Qur’an encourages believers to repel evil with what is better (41:34), while commanding them to accept peace when the opposing side sincerely inclines towards it (8:61). However, an accurate comparison must recognise an important distinction. Gandhi generally regarded non-violence as the preferred and fundamental method of resisting injustice, whereas Islamic jurisprudence permits regulated defensive force under specified conditions. Islam prohibits transgression and unjust aggression; it does not prescribe absolute pacifism in every circumstance. The Qur’an commands believers to fight those who fight them but prohibits transgression (2:190). It also emphasises reconciliation and the protection of human life. Thus, Islamic ethics combines the pursuit of peace with the responsibility to resist aggression and protect the oppressed. Gandhi’s personal interpretation tended to foreground those aspects of Islam that harmonised with his own commitment to non-violent resistance. This approach offered valuable possibilities for interreligious dialogue, but it did not encompass the full range of Islamic legal and historical thought. Despite these differences, both traditions provide substantial ethical resources for condemning oppression, restraining hostility and protecting human life. Their shared emphasis on justice and moral responsibility can contribute to contemporary peacebuilding and interreligious dialogue.
Conclusion: Gandhi’s relationship with Islam demonstrates the possibilities of ethical engagement across religious boundaries. His admiration for Prophet Muhammad, support for the Khilafat Movement and courageous efforts to protect Muslims during Partition reveal a sustained commitment to communal harmony and human dignity. The significance of Gandhi’s engagement lies not in claiming that his personal interpretation represents Islam in its entirety, but in recognising his willingness to learn from a religious tradition different from his own. His universalist understanding of religion enabled him to appreciate Islamic moral teachings while interpreting them through his commitment to truth and non-violence. A scholarly assessment must acknowledge this distinction and allow Muslim theological and intellectual traditions to speak in their own terms. Gandhi should neither be idealised uncritically nor separated from the historical complexities of his thought. His positions on caste, modernity and political strategy continue to invite scholarly debate. Yet his insistence that justice must transcend communal loyalty remains deeply relevant. In contemporary India, where religious polarisation can undermine social trust, Gandhi’s legacy and Islam’s teachings on justice, mercy and reconciliation offer complementary resources for building a peaceful society. The Qur’anic call to cooperate in righteousness (5:2) provides an enduring basis for collective action across religious differences. Ultimately, the relationship between Gandhi and Islam reminds us that genuine peace requires more than tolerance: it demands justice, courage, mutual respect and the protection of every human being. One can respect another religion deeply, defend the rights of its followers and learn from its ethical teachings without claiming to speak authoritatively on its behalf. This distinction strengthens rather than diminishes interfaith dialogue. Gandhi’s engagement with Islam thus remains a valuable foundation for advancing mutual understanding, religious coexistence and the common good.
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“Islamic marriage is a spiritual, legal, and social union rooted in faith, mutual consent, respect, and justice rather than wealth or high status. Its integrity is upheld by facilitating unions, honoring mahr, rejecting forced dowry, and avoiding extravagance. Ultimately, true marriage fulfills its Islamic purpose through lasting tranquility, affection, mercy, and responsible companionship long after the wedding.”

4. Mahr And Financial Rights: Mahr, the dower payable by the husband to the wife, is an essential financial right in Islamic marriage. The Qur’an commands: “Give the women their bridal gifts graciously” (4:4). Mahr belongs exclusively to the wife. It is neither a purchase price nor compensation for entering marriage. Its amount should be determined responsibly, with moderation and due regard for the circumstances of both parties. Mahr must be distinguished from dowry. Mahr is payable by the husband to the wife, whereas dowry demands often pressure the bride’s family to provide money, vehicles, jewellery, or property. Such demands can cause financial hardship and undermine the dignity of marriage. Voluntary gifts should never become compulsory conditions imposed through intimidation or social pressure.
5. Simplicity And Wedding Etiquette: Islam condemns extravagance. The Qur’an states, “Do not spend wastefully. Indeed, the wasteful are brothers of the devils” (17:26–27). Wedding celebrations should not drive families into debt or force them to exhaust their savings to satisfy social expectations. Simplicity, however, does not mean suppressing happiness or prohibiting lawful cultural traditions. Family gatherings, appropriate clothing, and hospitality are permissible within ethical limits. The Prophet encouraged wedding hospitality, telling Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf: “Give a wedding feast, even if with one sheep” (Sahih al-Bukhari, 5155). The teaching supports celebration according to one’s means, not a fixed level of expenditure. The walimah, or wedding feast, should promote generosity and inclusion rather than social prestige. The Prophet criticised a feast at which wealthy people were invited while poor people were excluded (Sahih al-Bukhari, 5177; Sahih Muslim, 1432). Hospitality should reflect compassion, not discrimination.
6. Choosing A Spouse: The selection of a spouse should prioritise faith, character, emotional maturity, and compatibility. The Prophet observed that people marry for wealth, lineage, beauty, and religion, and encouraged choosing a religiously committed spouse (Sahih al-Bukhari, 5090; Sahih Muslim, 1466).
This guidance does not make education, temperament, attraction, or practical circumstances irrelevant. Rather, moral integrity provides an essential foundation for lasting companionship. Parents may offer advice, but the preferences and concerns of prospective spouses deserve serious consideration.
7. Mutual Rights And Responsibilities: The Qur’an commands husbands to live with their wives in kindness (4:19). Islamic marriage requires the fulfilment of financial, emotional, and moral responsibilities. The husband must provide the maintenance required by Islamic law, while both spouses must respect each other’s dignity, privacy, and legitimate rights. The Prophet declared, “The best of you are those who are best to their families” (Jami‘ al-Tirmidhi, 3895). Religious devotion must therefore be reflected in domestic conduct. Cruelty, dishonesty, humiliation, and abuse contradict the ethical objectives of marriage. Spouses should communicate honestly, cooperate in family life, and resolve disagreements fairly. Where abuse or danger occurs, protecting the affected person must take priority over preserving appearances.
Conclusion: Marriage in Islam combines spiritual purpose, legal responsibility, and social welfare. Its success depends not upon expensive ceremonies or social status but upon faith, consent, mutual respect, compassion, and justice. Facilitating marriage, honouring mahr, rejecting coercive dowry demands, avoiding extravagance, and protecting the rights of both spouses are essential expressions of Islamic ethics. Marriage fulfils its true purpose when tranquillity, affection, mercy, and responsible companionship continue long after the wedding celebration.
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“An Islamic epistemological framework harmonizes revelation, reason, empirical observation, reliable testimony, and critical reflection. By combining foundational divine sources with disciplined intellectual inquiry, it moves education beyond passive tradition toward a purposeful synthesis of truth, moral conduct, and societal responsibility.”

1. The Unity Of Truth And The Hierarchy Of Knowledge: Islamic epistemology affirms that truth ultimately possesses unity because reality originates in God. This conviction encourages intellectual coherence without requiring the collapse of all disciplines into a single method. The Qur’an and Sunnah establish foundational religious and moral commitments, while reason, observation, and experience contribute to understanding different dimensions of reality. Classical Muslim scholars developed varied classifications of knowledge. Ibn Khaldun distinguished transmitted sciences from rational sciences, while Al-Ghazali discussed the religious obligations associated with essential knowledge and specialised disciplines necessary for communal welfare. These classifications illustrate that knowledge differs according to its source, purpose, method, and practical consequences. A hierarchy of knowledge should therefore be understood in terms of epistemological authority and human purpose rather than as an excuse to neglect useful disciplines. Revelation provides normative guidance concerning ultimate meaning and religious obligations; empirical sciences investigate observable realities; rational disciplines clarify arguments and relationships; and ethical reflection evaluates the responsible application of knowledge. The unity of knowledge does not mean that every scientific discovery must be explicitly stated in scripture or that apparent tensions should be resolved through superficial harmonisation. Instead, it requires intellectual honesty, careful interpretation, methodological precision, and willingness to reconsider human assumptions.
1. Knowledge, Ethics, And Human Responsibility: In Islam, knowledge is inseparable from accountability. The acquisition of information is not the final objective; knowledge should cultivate wisdom, justice, humility, and responsible action. The Qur’anic prayer, “My Lord, increase me in knowledge” (20:114), expresses an enduring commitment to learning.
The concepts of ʿilm (knowledge), ʿamal (action), adab (proper conduct), and tazkiyah (moral purification) demonstrate the ethical dimensions of Islamic learning. Scientific and technological capabilities must be evaluated not only according to efficiency but also according to their consequences for human dignity, social justice, and the natural environment. An epistemologically sound educational system must therefore develop intellectual competence alongside moral character. It should encourage students to question unsupported claims, acknowledge uncertainty, evaluate evidence, respect legitimate disagreement, and recognise the limits of their own understanding.
1. Implications For Contemporary Islamic Education: Strengthening Islamic education requires a clear distinction between foundational sources and historically developed interpretations, together with systematic training in logic, research methodology, empirical investigation, and critical reading. Classical texts should remain integral to religious education, but they should be studied through contextual analysis and comparative engagement rather than passive reproduction. Curricula should also incorporate the natural sciences, social sciences, humanities, and contemporary technological developments. Such integration enables students to investigate modern problems while applying Islamic ethical principles responsibly. Assessment methods should reward analytical reasoning, research competence, evidence-based argumentation, and the ability to apply knowledge to practical challenges.
The objective is neither to subordinate revelation to changing intellectual fashions nor to isolate religious scholarship from the wider world of knowledge. It is to cultivate a dynamic intellectual tradition grounded in revelation, informed by reason, enriched by empirical inquiry, disciplined by reliable evidence, and directed towards ethical and social flourishing.
Conclusion: A strengthened Islamic epistemological framework rests upon the complementary functions of revelation, reason, sensory perception, reliable testimony, and critical reflection. It recognises the distinctive authority of the Qur’an and authentic Sunnah while acknowledging that human interpretations remain open to scholarly evaluation. It values empirical science without reducing all knowledge to scientific measurement and encourages rational inquiry without assuming that human reason is infallible. The educational implications are profound. Islamic institutions must move beyond the mechanical transmission of inherited interpretations towards a culture of disciplined inquiry, methodological competence, intellectual humility, and moral responsibility. Such an approach would reconnect Islamic education with its foundational sources and its rich intellectual heritage while enabling Muslim scholarship to engage constructively with contemporary scientific, philosophical, and social challenges. Ultimately, the purpose of Islamic epistemology is not merely to accumulate information but to establish a responsible relationship between truth, understanding, and action. Knowledge becomes wisdom when it illuminates the intellect, guides moral conduct, advances human welfare, and enables individuals to fulfil their responsibilities before God and society.
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“Islamic civilization measured true advancement by ethics, human dignity, and learning rather than power or wealth. By integrating global knowledge, driving original discovery, and establishing enduring institutions, it created a shared human legacy that contemporary societies should honor through a renewed commitment to education, intellectual openness, and scientific integrity.”

Islamic philosophy engaged deeply with existence, causation, ethics, politics, the soul, and the relationship between reason and revelation. Al-Kindi developed philosophical writing in Arabic; al-Farabi explored logic and the virtuous society; and Ibn Sina developed influential ideas concerning essence, existence, and the soul. Al-Ghazali critically examined philosophical claims without rejecting reason altogether. Ibn Rushd defended rational inquiry and produced influential commentaries on Aristotle. Their works entered Latin and Hebrew intellectual traditions and influenced medieval European philosophy. Islamic civilisation also advanced historical and social thought. Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah analysed political authority, economic life, education, social solidarity, and the rise and decline of states. His concept of asabiyyah explained how collective cohesion enables communities to establish power and how weakening solidarity contributes to political decline. He also insisted that historical reports should be examined critically and judged according to social and political plausibility.
Al-Biruni’s study of Indian religion and culture similarly demonstrated the value of comparative scholarship and intellectual openness. Knowledge from the Islamic world reached Europe through translation centres such as Toledo and through exchanges in Sicily and the Mediterranean. European scholars encountered works by al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Sina, al-Razi, Ibn al-Haytham, and Ibn Rushd. These texts were translated, debated, adapted, and incorporated into European learning. Islamic civilisation therefore became one of the major intellectual foundations of the European Renaissance, although European development also depended upon Byzantine learning, local traditions, and later institutional changes. This history should not be distorted by exaggerated claims. Medieval Europe was not entirely intellectually inactive, and Muslim civilisation did not create every later scientific achievement. Nevertheless, older narratives that move directly from Greece and Rome to the Renaissance often neglect centuries of Muslim scholarship.
Correcting this imbalance is not an attempt to replace one prejudice with another; it is an effort to restore historical accuracy. The worldview of tawhid, or divine unity, encouraged many Muslim scholars to seek harmony between nature, reason, morality, and spiritual meaning. Islamic teachings also emphasised justice, human dignity, responsibility, and beneficial knowledge. Civilisation, therefore, should be measured not only by power and wealth but also by its capacity to promote learning, ethical conduct, creativity, and the common good. Islamic civilisation did not merely preserve ancient knowledge. It gathered traditions from different peoples, critically examined them, generated original discoveries, established institutions of learning, and transmitted knowledge across cultural boundaries. Its legacy belongs to humanity as a whole. Contemporary Muslim societies should honour this inheritance not through nostalgia, but through renewed commitment to education, research, intellectual openness, scientific integrity, and moral responsibility. Any complete history of world civilisation must recognise that Islamic civilisation helped preserve the light of knowledge, enlarge its reach, and transmit it to future generations
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com

“While classical philosophical arguments reveal the universe’s purpose and order, and religious experience deepens our spiritual awareness, both have their limits. Reason and intuition can bring humanity to the threshold of faith, but from the Islamic perspective, only divine revelation bridges the gap to absolute truth—transforming Allah from an abstract philosophical concept into the Living, Eternal Reality worthy of our complete devotion and love.”

Iqbal recognised the force of Kant’s criticism but refused to accept Kant’s conclusion that knowledge of God is therefore impossible. Instead, he argued that Kant underestimated another mode of human cognition—religious experience. According to Iqbal, human consciousness possesses dimensions that transcend ordinary discursive reasoning. Just as sense perception provides immediate knowledge of the physical world, religious experience provides immediate awareness of Ultimate Reality.
In The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, particularly in the lecture entitled The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience, Iqbal argues that religion is not merely emotion, nor mere speculation, but an experience engaging the whole personality. Religious consciousness constitutes a genuine source of knowledge. God is not simply inferred from the existence of the universe; He is encountered in the depths of religious experience.
This represents Iqbal’s most original philosophical contribution. He shifts the discussion from abstract logical demonstration to existential awareness. Religious experience transcends reason without contradicting it. Reason prepares the mind, removes misconceptions, and analyses experience, but direct awareness of God belongs to a higher level of consciousness.
Nevertheless, from the standpoint of Islamic epistemology, an even more fundamental source of certainty exists—namely divine revelation. The Qur’ān consistently distinguishes between knowledge obtained through observation and knowledge communicated by Allah. Human reason, however powerful, remains limited by its finite nature. Scientific investigation expands our understanding of creation but cannot independently penetrate the realities of the unseen (al-ghayb). Matters such as the existence of angels, the nature of the soul, resurrection, paradise, hell, divine attributes, and ultimate accountability remain inaccessible to empirical inquiry. The opening verses of Sūrah al-Baqarah describe believers as: “Those who believe in the unseen” (Qur’ān 2:3). Their belief is not irrational; rather, it rests upon the authority of revelation. Likewise, the Qur’ān repeatedly emphasises that Allah alone possesses complete knowledge of the unseen: “With Him are the keys of the unseen; none knows them except Him” (Qur’ān 6:59).
Therefore, revelation occupies a unique epistemological position. It does not abolish reason but perfects and guides it. Human intellect may recognise that the universe requires an explanation, but revelation identifies that explanation as Allah, the Lord of the worlds. Consequently, while the cosmological and teleological arguments possess considerable philosophical significance, they should not be mistaken for the ultimate foundation of faith. Their primary function is to awaken reflection, remove intellectual obstacles, and direct human attention towards the Creator. They cannot independently generate the certainty of faith because the finite universe cannot fully disclose the Infinite Creator.
Modern atheistic objections frequently misunderstand this distinction. A common argument asserts that if everything requires a creator, then God Himself must also require a creator. This objection rests upon a misunderstanding of the cosmological argument.
Classical Islamic theology never claims that everything requires a cause; rather, it maintains that everything contingent requires a cause. Allah, by definition, is not contingent but Necessary, Eternal, Self-Subsisting, and Independent. To ask who created the Necessary Being is to misunderstand the concept itself. A contingent universe demands explanation precisely because it lacks self-sufficiency; the Necessary Being does not. Likewise, contemporary critics often argue that increasing scientific knowledge eliminates the need for God. Yet science investigates the mechanisms operating within nature; it does not explain why there exists an ordered universe governed by intelligible laws in the first place. Scientific explanation presupposes rational order; it does not account for its ultimate origin.
As many philosophers have observed, science answers the question “how,” whereas metaphysics and theology address the deeper question “why.” From this perspective, the Qur’ānic method remains intellectually profound. Rather than constructing elaborate metaphysical systems, the Qur’ān repeatedly appeals to ordinary human reflection. Every aspect of creation—the heavens, the earth, human life, historical events, and moral consciousness—becomes an āyah directing humanity towards its Creator. Yet these signs require the illumination of revelation to be properly understood. Iqbal’s contribution lies in demonstrating that modern philosophy need not destroy religious belief. He accepts many legitimate criticisms advanced by Kant against speculative metaphysics while refusing to surrender religion to scepticism. Instead, he reconstructs Islamic thought around the living experience of God. However, his reconstruction reaches its fullest significance only when placed within the wider Qur’ānic framework, where religious experience itself is inseparable from revelation. Revelation provides the objective criterion by which subjective religious experience is authenticated and interpreted.
In conclusion, the philosophical arguments for the existence of God continue to possess enduring intellectual value. The cosmological argument reveals the contingency of the universe; the teleological argument highlights its remarkable order and intelligibility; the ontological argument illustrates humanity’s search for ultimate perfection, even if it ultimately fails as a demonstrative proof. Kant rightly exposed the limitations of speculative metaphysics, while Muhammad Iqbal reconstructed the discussion by grounding religious certainty in direct religious experience. Yet from the Islamic perspective, the final foundation of faith is neither speculative philosophy nor subjective experience alone, but divine revelation. The universe remains one of the greatest signs of Allah, continuously inviting thoughtful reflection. Reason may lead humanity to the threshold of belief, religious experience deepens that awareness, but revelation alone opens the door to certain knowledge of the Creator and the unseen. Thus, philosophy, science, and contemplation all find their highest fulfilment when illuminated by the light of revelation, through which the believer recognises Allah not merely as the First Cause or Supreme Designer, but as the Living, Eternal, and Absolute Reality, worthy of worship, obedience, gratitude, and love
(The author a veteran academician is a former Professor and Head Department of Islamic Studies, Kashmir University. The views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the author and aren’t necessarily in accord with the views of “Kashmir Horizon”)
hamidnaseem@gmail.com